1 Jeff Allen, Updating the ACT College Readiness Benchmarks (Iowa City, IA: ACT, 2013); Patrick Callan et al., Claiming Common Ground: State Policymaking for Improving College Readiness and Success (San Jose, CA: National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2006); Melissa Roderick, Jenny Nagaoka, and Vanessa Coca, “College Readiness for All: The Challenge for Urban High Schools,” The Future of Children 19 (2009): 185–210.

2 Ernest T. Pascarella et al., “First-Generation College Students: Additional Evidence on College Experiences and Outcomes,” Journal of Higher Education 75 (2004), 249–284; Patrick T. Terenzini et al., “First-Generation College Students: Characteristics, Experiences, and Cognitive Development,” Research in Higher Education 37 (1996), 1–22; Marvin A. Titus, “Understanding College Degree Completion of Students with Low Socioeconomic Status: The Influence of the Institutional Financial Context,” Research in Higher Education 47 (2006), 371–398.

3 Stephanie Marken et al., Dual Enrollment Programs and Courses for High School Students at Postsecondary Institutions: 2010-11 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2013); Brian Kleiner and Laurie Lewis, Dual Enrollment of High School Students at Postsecondary Institutions: 2002–03 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2005).

4 Currently, 47 states have a statewide dual enrollment program. Between 2002–03 and 2010–11, dual enrollment programs experienced an annual growth rate of more than seven percent.

5 “The 2015 Gubernatorial State of the State Addresses and Higher Education,” American Association of State Colleges and Universities, accessed October 19, 2015, http://www.aascu.org/policy/ state-policy/ 2015StateoftheStates.pdf; “The 2014 Gubernatorial State of the State Addresses and Higher Education: State Summary,” American Association of State Colleges and Universities, accessed October 19, 2015, http:// www.aascu.org/policy/state-policy/2014StateoftheStateAddresses.pdf; “2013 Gubernatorial State of the State Speeches and Higher Education,” American Association of State Colleges and Universities, accessed October 19, 2015, http://www.aascu.org/policy/state-policy/2013/documents/stateofthestateaddresses.pdf.

6 Jill D. Crouse and Jeff Allen, “College Course Grades for Dual Enrollment Students,” Community College Journal of Research and Practice 38 (2014), 1–18; Justine Radunzel, Julie Noble, and Sue Wheeler, (2014). Dual-Credit/Dual-Enrollment Coursework and Long-Term College Success in Texas (Iowa City, IA: ACT, 2014); Xueli Wang and Kelly Wickersham, “Postsecondary Co-Enrollment and Baccalaureate Completion: A Look at Both Beginning 4-Year College Students and Baccalaureate Aspirants Beginning at Community Colleges,” Research in Higher Education 55 (2014), 166–195; Xueli Wang and Bo McCready, “The Effect of Postsecondary Co-Enrollment on College Success: Initial Evidence and Implications for Policy and Future Research,” Educational Researcher 42 (2013), 392–402; Brian P. An, “The Impact of Dual Enrollment on College Degree Attainment: Do Low-SES Students Benefit?,” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 35 (2013), 57–75; Ben Struhl and Joel Vargas, Taking College Courses in High School: A Strategy for College Readiness—The College Outcomes of Dual Enrollment in Texas (Boston / Washington, DC: Jobs for the Future, 2012); Cecilia Speroni, Determinants of Students’ Success: The Role of Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Programs (New York: National Center for Postsecondary Research, 2011); Nancy Hoffman, Joel Vargas, and Janet Santos, (2009). “New Directions for Dual Enrollment: Creating Stronger Pathways from High School through College,” New Directions in Community Colleges 2009 (2009), 43–58; Melinda Mechur Karp, et al., State Dual Enrollment Policies: Addressing Access and Quality (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2004). There is also a special issue of New Directions for Community Colleges devoted to dual enrollment (Volume 2015, Issue 169).

7 Radunzel, Noble, and Wheeler, Dual-Credit/Dual-Enrollment Coursework.

8 ACT, The Condition of College and Career Readiness 2015: National (Iowa City, IA: ACT, 2015).

9 Specifically, 64 percent of tested students met the ACT College Readiness Benchmark for English, 46 percent met the Benchmark for reading, 42 percent met the Benchmark for mathematics, and 38 percent met the Benchmark for science.

10 See, for example, ACT National Curriculum Survey 2012: Policy Implications on Preparing for Higher Standards (Iowa City, IA: ACT, 2013).

11 Krista Mattern et al., Broadening the Definition of College and Career Readiness: A Holistic Approach, (Iowa City, IA: ACT, 2014).

12 Jennifer Dounay Zinth, Increasing Student Access and Success in Dual Enrollment Programs: 13 Model State- Level Policy Components (Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States, 2014).

13 “Dual Enrollment - All State Profiles,” Education Commission of the States, accessed October 19, 2015, http://ecs.force.com/mbdata/mbprofallRT?Rep=DE14A.

14 Dounay Zinth, Increasing Student Access and Success.

15 Estimates generated from the EDAT tool using public release data from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09). “High poverty background” refers to families at or below the 2011 poverty threshold set forth by the U.S. Census Bureau. Both family income and household size are considered when calculating a family’s standing with respect to the threshold. More information is available at http://www.census.gov/ hhes/www/poverty/data/threshld.

16 “Dual Enrollment: Who Is Primarily Responsible for Paying Tuition,” Education Commission of the States, accessed October 19, 2015, http://ecs.force.com/mbdata/MBQuestRTL?Rep=DE1404.

17 High schools in Florida, Indiana, New Mexico, and Texas and public colleges in Florida and Oregon are required to offer dual enrollment courses. New Mexico requires completion of an accelerated course (such as Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, or dual enrollment) for high school graduation, while Florida, Indiana, and Tennessee require completion of an accelerated course for honors diplomas.

18 “Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education and Kentucky Department of Education Dual Credit Policy for Kentucky Public and Participating Postsecondary Institutions and Secondary Schools,” accessed October 19, 2015, http://education.ky.gov/comm/news/Documents/Dual%20Credit%20Policy%20Draft%20Final.pdf.